Tone Holes
Construction Materials
Fingerings
Despite the wide range of designs, woodwinds do have some lower level similarities. Unlike the brasses, for example, all woodwinds make extensive use of their fundamental pitches, with the second partial being used for the middle register. Other design issues are considered below.
Tone Holes
Like brass instruments, the sounds produced by the woodwinds are the result of a vibrating air column inside the instrument. Unlike the brasses, however, the length of this column is changed, not by using valves to alter the length of the instrument’s tubing, but through the use of strategically positioned tone holes. These tone holes are placed at the nodes referred to in the section on music and physics. Basically, these nodes are the places where the standing waves cancel each other out and the longitudinal motion is reversed. As the fingers uncover the tone holes, the node moves up the instrument to the highest open hole, shortening the vibrating air column and thus raising the pitch.
Construction Materials
Quality oboes, clarinets and bassoons are made of wood with the straightest grain possible. Traditionally, the oboe and clarinet have been made of grenadilla wood. This wood minimizes moisture absorption and is available in large enough quantities to ensure that it does not become too expensive. Nowadays, however, many student model clarinets are made of resins that do not require the same level of care and maintenance needed to keep wooden instruments in top playing condition. The sound produced by such clarinets, however, is widely believed to be inferior to those made of grenadilla wood. The bassoon, however, is still made of hard maple stained brown (mahogany) or black (ebony).
Although originally made of wood, most flutes in common use today are made of metal. Sterling silver (92.5% pure silver) is the traditional material for top quality flutes. Most student models, however, are made of nickel silver. Silver plating is said to produce the best timbre, but is probably not a good choice for secondary schools since it tends to tarnish after a few months. Nickel plating, on the other hand, is more hardwearing and costs about the same. As a result, it is more popular.
Most piccolos have a conical bore, whereas most flutes are cylindrical. Wooden piccolos (usually best for concert music) are more sonorous than their metal counterparts and are therefore preferred in orchestral playing. Metal piccolos, on the other hand, are easier to play and have a more brilliant tone quality. They are therefore more popular in marching bands.
Fingerings
Woodwind fingerings have been standardized since the fourteenth century. Six tone holes, uncovered one at a time, produce a seven-note scale. All holes covered produce either a C (flutes, oboes and saxophones) or an F (clarinets and bassoons). Removing the fingers creates a kind of “bell” immediately beneath the last tone hole covered. Covering holes beneath the open hole tend to make the pitch flat. Thus, it has become a standard means of lowering pitches that are a little sharp. Duplicate keys are provided on clarinets and oboes to help players avoid sliding with the same finger from one key to another. Even so, it is sometimes unavoidable.
As in the case of the brasses, there are usually a number of alternative fingerings available for any given note. In general, the preferred fingerings are those which give the best intonation and sound quality. However, it is also important to take account of other issues, such as comfort and ease of use. In some passages, the standard fingerings may be awkward or even impossible. It is therefore important to encourage students to think in terms of primary and secondary fingerings. For example, whenever possible, clarinet players should avoid sliding on the low G-sharp, F-sharp, E and F key. Instead, they should take advantage of the duplicated left-hand keys provided for this purpose. A similar situation occurs with the oboe in the case of the E-flat, C and F keys.